Applied: Build an Executor

Rust's Futures are lazy: they won't do anything unless actively driven to completion. One way to drive a future to completion is to .await it inside an async function, but that just pushes the problem one level up: who will run the futures returned from the top-level async functions? The answer is that we need a Future executor.

Future executors take a set of top-level Futures and run them to completion by calling poll whenever the Future can make progress. Typically, an executor will poll a future once to start off. When Futures indicate that they are ready to make progress by calling wake(), they are placed back onto a queue and poll is called again, repeating until the Future has completed.

In this section, we'll write our own simple executor capable of running a large number of top-level futures to completion concurrently.

For this example, we depend on the futures crate for the ArcWake trait, which provides an easy way to construct a Waker. Edit Cargo.toml to add a new dependency:

[package]
name = "timer_future"
version = "0.1.0"
authors = ["XYZ Author"]
edition = "2021"

[dependencies]
futures = "0.3"

Next, we need the following imports at the top of src/main.rs:

use futures::{
    future::{BoxFuture, FutureExt},
    task::{waker_ref, ArcWake},
};
use std::{
    future::Future,
    sync::mpsc::{sync_channel, Receiver, SyncSender},
    sync::{Arc, Mutex},
    task::Context,
    time::Duration,
};
// The timer we wrote in the previous section:
use timer_future::TimerFuture;

Our executor will work by sending tasks to run over a channel. The executor will pull events off of the channel and run them. When a task is ready to do more work (is awoken), it can schedule itself to be polled again by putting itself back onto the channel.

In this design, the executor itself just needs the receiving end of the task channel. The user will get a sending end so that they can spawn new futures. Tasks themselves are just futures that can reschedule themselves, so we'll store them as a future paired with a sender that the task can use to requeue itself.

/// Task executor that receives tasks off of a channel and runs them.
struct Executor {
    ready_queue: Receiver<Arc<Task>>,
}

/// `Spawner` spawns new futures onto the task channel.
#[derive(Clone)]
struct Spawner {
    task_sender: SyncSender<Arc<Task>>,
}

/// A future that can reschedule itself to be polled by an `Executor`.
struct Task {
    /// In-progress future that should be pushed to completion.
    ///
    /// The `Mutex` is not necessary for correctness, since we only have
    /// one thread executing tasks at once. However, Rust isn't smart
    /// enough to know that `future` is only mutated from one thread,
    /// so we need to use the `Mutex` to prove thread-safety. A production
    /// executor would not need this, and could use `UnsafeCell` instead.
    future: Mutex<Option<BoxFuture<'static, ()>>>,

    /// Handle to place the task itself back onto the task queue.
    task_sender: SyncSender<Arc<Task>>,
}

fn new_executor_and_spawner() -> (Executor, Spawner) {
    // Maximum number of tasks to allow queueing in the channel at once.
    // This is just to make `sync_channel` happy, and wouldn't be present in
    // a real executor.
    const MAX_QUEUED_TASKS: usize = 10_000;
    let (task_sender, ready_queue) = sync_channel(MAX_QUEUED_TASKS);
    (Executor { ready_queue }, Spawner { task_sender })
}

Let's also add a method to spawner to make it easy to spawn new futures. This method will take a future type, box it, and create a new Arc<Task> with it inside which can be enqueued onto the executor.

impl Spawner {
    fn spawn(&self, future: impl Future<Output = ()> + 'static + Send) {
        let future = future.boxed();
        let task = Arc::new(Task {
            future: Mutex::new(Some(future)),
            task_sender: self.task_sender.clone(),
        });
        self.task_sender.send(task).expect("too many tasks queued");
    }
}

To poll futures, we'll need to create a Waker. As discussed in the task wakeups section, Wakers are responsible for scheduling a task to be polled again once wake is called. Remember that Wakers tell the executor exactly which task has become ready, allowing them to poll just the futures that are ready to make progress. The easiest way to create a new Waker is by implementing the ArcWake trait and then using the waker_ref or .into_waker() functions to turn an Arc<impl ArcWake> into a Waker. Let's implement ArcWake for our tasks to allow them to be turned into Wakers and awoken:

impl ArcWake for Task {
    fn wake_by_ref(arc_self: &Arc<Self>) {
        // Implement `wake` by sending this task back onto the task channel
        // so that it will be polled again by the executor.
        let cloned = arc_self.clone();
        arc_self
            .task_sender
            .send(cloned)
            .expect("too many tasks queued");
    }
}

When a Waker is created from an Arc<Task>, calling wake() on it will cause a copy of the Arc to be sent onto the task channel. Our executor then needs to pick up the task and poll it. Let's implement that:

impl Executor {
    fn run(&self) {
        while let Ok(task) = self.ready_queue.recv() {
            // Take the future, and if it has not yet completed (is still Some),
            // poll it in an attempt to complete it.
            let mut future_slot = task.future.lock().unwrap();
            if let Some(mut future) = future_slot.take() {
                // Create a `LocalWaker` from the task itself
                let waker = waker_ref(&task);
                let context = &mut Context::from_waker(&*waker);
                // `BoxFuture<T>` is a type alias for
                // `Pin<Box<dyn Future<Output = T> + Send + 'static>>`.
                // We can get a `Pin<&mut dyn Future + Send + 'static>`
                // from it by calling the `Pin::as_mut` method.
                if future.as_mut().poll(context).is_pending() {
                    // We're not done processing the future, so put it
                    // back in its task to be run again in the future.
                    *future_slot = Some(future);
                }
            }
        }
    }
}

Congratulations! We now have a working futures executor. We can even use it to run async/.await code and custom futures, such as the TimerFuture we wrote earlier:

fn main() {
    let (executor, spawner) = new_executor_and_spawner();

    // Spawn a task to print before and after waiting on a timer.
    spawner.spawn(async {
        println!("howdy!");
        // Wait for our timer future to complete after two seconds.
        TimerFuture::new(Duration::new(2, 0)).await;
        println!("done!");
    });

    // Drop the spawner so that our executor knows it is finished and won't
    // receive more incoming tasks to run.
    drop(spawner);

    // Run the executor until the task queue is empty.
    // This will print "howdy!", pause, and then print "done!".
    executor.run();
}